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Table of Contents<br/>Cover image<br/>Title page<br/>Copyright<br/>Dedication<br/>Preface to the third South Asia edition<br/>Preface to the second South Asia edition<br/>Preface to the first South Asia edition<br/>Preface to the 14th edition<br/>Videos<br/>Competency map<br/>SECTION I. General Physiology<br/>1. Functional organization of the human body and control of the “internal environment”<br/>Cells are the living units of the body<br/>Extracellular fluid—the “internal environment”<br/>Homeostasis—maintenance of a nearly constant internal environment PY1.2<br/>Control systems of the body<br/>Summary—automaticity of the body<br/>Further readings<br/>2. The cell and its functions<br/>Organization of the cell<br/>Physical structure of the cell PY1.1<br/>Functional systems of the cell PY1.1<br/>Further readings<br/>3. Genetic control of protein synthesis, cell function, and cell reproduction PY1.1<br/>Genes in the cell nucleus control protein synthesis<br/>The DNA code in the cell nucleus is transferred to RNA code in the cell cytoplasm—the process of transcription<br/>Control of gene function and biochemical activity in cells<br/>Genetic testing<br/>The DNA–genetic system controls cell reproduction<br/>Cell differentiation<br/>Apoptosis PY1.4<br/>Further readings<br/>4. Transport of substances through cell membranes<br/>Diffusion PY1.5<br/>“Active transport” of substances through membranes PY1.5<br/>Further readings<br/>5. The body fluid compartments<br/>Fluid intake and output are balanced during steady-state conditions<br/>Body fluid compartments PY1.6<br/>Blood volume<br/>Constituents of extracellular and intracellular fluids PY1.6<br/>Measurement of fluid volumes in the different body fluid compartments—the indicator–dilution principle PY1.6<br/>Determination of volumes of specific body fluid compartments<br/>Further readings<br/>6. Intracellular and extracellular
fluid compartments and edema PY1.6<br/>Basic principles of osmosis
and osmotic pressure<br/>Osmotic equilibrium is maintained between intracellular and extracellular fluids<br/>Volume and osmolality of extracellular and intracellular
fluids in abnormal states<br/>Clinical abnormalities of fluid volume regulation: Hyponatremia and hypernatremia<br/>Edema: Excess fluid in the tissues<br/>Fluids in the “potential spaces”
of the body<br/>Further readings<br/>7. Resting membrane potential<br/>Basic physics of membrane potentials PY1.8<br/>Measuring the membrane potential<br/>Resting membrane potential of neurons<br/>Impermeant anions (the Gibbs–Donnan phenomenon)<br/>Further readings<br/>SECTION II. Nerve and Muscle Physiology<br/>8. The neuron: Stimulus and excitability<br/>Characteristics of a stimulus PY1.8<br/>Excitation—the process of eliciting the action potential<br/>Further readings<br/>9. Action potential of the nerve PY1.8<br/>Voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels<br/>Summary of the events that cause the action potential<br/>Roles of other ions during the action potential<br/>Local potentials<br/>Refractory period<br/>Further readings<br/>10. Propagation of the nerve impulse PY3.2<br/>Special characteristics of signal transmission in nerve trunks<br/>Further readings<br/>11. Peripheral nerve damage<br/>The nature and causes if peripheral neuropathy<br/>Nerve injury<br/>Wallerian degeneration PY3.3<br/>Functional assessment of nerve damage using the strength–duration curve PY3.17<br/>Nerve regeneration PY3.3<br/>Further readings<br/>12. Neuromuscular transmission PY3.4<br/>Secretion of acetylcholine by the nerve terminals<br/>Molecular biology of acetylcholine formation and release<br/>Drugs that enhance or block transmission at the neuromuscular junction PY3.5<br/>Myasthenia gravis PY3.6<br/>Lambert-Eaton syndrome<br/>Muscle action potential—comparison with nerve action potential<br/>Further readings<br/>13. Excitation–contraction coupling PY3.4; PY3.8<br/>Transverse tubule–sarcoplasmic reticulum system<br/>Release of calcium ions by the sarcoplasmic reticulum<br/>Further readings<br/>14. Molecular basis of skeletal muscle contraction PY3.4; PY3.9<br/>Physiological anatomy of skeletal muscle<br/>General mechanism of muscle contraction<br/>Molecular mechanism of muscle contraction<br/>Further readings<br/>15. Chemical changes during skeletal muscle contraction PY3.11<br/>Energetics of muscle contraction<br/>Further readings<br/>16. Characteristics of skeletal muscle contraction PY3.8, 3.10, 3.12<br/>The amount of actin and myosin filament overlap determines tension developed by the contracting muscle<br/>Relation of velocity of contraction to load<br/>Mechanics of skeletal muscle contraction<br/>Muscular dystrophy PY3.13<br/>Further readings<br/>17. Applied skeletal muscle physiology<br/>Blood flow regulation in skeletal muscle at rest and during exercise PY3.11<br/>Muscles in exercise PY3.11<br/>Gender differences in athletic performance PY11.4<br/>Drugs and athletes<br/>Further readings<br/>SECTION III. Blood and Its Constituents<br/>18. Introduction to blood and plasma proteins PY2.1<br/>Functional roles of the plasma proteins PY2.2<br/>Separation of plasma proteins<br/>Plasmapheresis<br/>Further readings<br/>19. Red blood cells (erythrocytes) PY2.3<br/>Shape and size of red blood cells<br/>Concentration of red blood cells in the blood<br/>Quantity of hemoglobin in the cells<br/>Life span of red blood cells is about 120 days<br/>Erythrocyte sedimentation rate<br/>Further readings<br/>20. Erythropoiesis PY2.4<br/>Areas of the body that produce red blood cells<br/>Genesis of blood cells<br/>Stages of differentiation of red blood cells<br/>Erythropoietin regulates red blood cell production<br/>Maturation of red blood cells—requirement for vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) and folic acid<br/>Further readings<br/>21. Hemoglobin<br/>Formation of hemoglobin PY2.3<br/>Iron metabolism<br/>Further readings<br/>22. Anemia and polycythemia PY2.5<br/>Anemia<br/>RBC indices in anemia<br/>Polycythemia<br/>Further readings<br/>23. Jaundice<br/>Hemolytic jaundice is caused by hemolysis of red blood cells PY2.5<br/>Obstructive jaundice is caused by obstruction of bile ducts or liver disease<br/>Diagnostic differences between hemolytic and obstructive jaundice<br/>Further readings<br/>24. White blood cells PY2.6<br/>Leukocytes (white blood cells)<br/>Neutrophils and macrophages defend against infections<br/>Monocyte–macrophage cell system (reticuloendothelial system)<br/>Eosinophils<br/>Basophils<br/>Leukopenia<br/>Leukemias<br/>Further readings<br/>25. Immunity and allergy<br/>Acquired (adaptive) immunity PY2.10<br/>Allergy and hypersensitivity<br/>Further readings<br/>26. Platelets<br/>Thrombopoiesis PY2.7<br/>Hemostasis events PY2.7<br/>Vascular constriction<br/>Thrombocytopenia<br/>Thromboembolic conditions<br/>Bleeding time<br/>Further readings<br/>27. Blood coagulation PY2.8<br/>Conversion of prothrombin to thrombin<br/>Conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin—formation of the clot<br/>Positive feedback of clot formation<br/>Initiation of coagulation: Formation of prothrombin activator<br/>Intravascular anticoagulants prevent blood clotting in the normal vascular system<br/>Plasmin causes lysis of blood clots<br/>Conditions that cause excessive bleeding in humans<br/>Anticoagulants for clinical use<br/>Blood coagulation tests<br/>Further readings<br/>28. Blood groups PY2.9<br/>Multiplicity of antigens in the blood cells<br/>O–A–B blood types<br/>Rh blood types<br/>Further readings<br/>SECTION IV. Cardiovascular Physiology<br/>29. Organization of the cardiovascular system PY5.7, 5.8<br/>Physical characteristics of the circulation<br/>Basic principles of circulatory function<br/>Further readings<br/>30. Properties of cardiac muscle PY5.2<br/>Anatomical characteristics of cardiac muscle<br/>Physiological characteristics of cardiac muscle<br/>Further readings<br/>31. Cardiac action potentials PY5.4<br/>Membrane potentials for the SA node and muscle fibers<br/>Control of cardiac action potentials by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves<br/>Effect of drugs on the cardiac action potential<br/>Further readings<br/>32. Origin and conduction of the cardiac impulse PY5.4<br/>Specialized excitatory and conductive system of the heart<br/>Control of excitation and conduction in the heart PY5.1<br/>Further readings<br/>33. The normal electrocardiogram<br/>Characteristics of the normal electrocardiogram PY5.5<br/>Flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle<br/>Electrocardiographic leads<br/>34. Clinical applications of the electrocardiogram<br/>Abnormal sinus rhythms PY5.6<br/>Abnormal rhythms that result from block of heart signals within the intracardiac conduction pathways<br/>Premature contractions<br/>Paroxysmal tachycardia<br/>Ventricular fibrillation<br/>Atrial fibrillation<br/>Atrial flutter<br/>Cardiac arrest<br/>Vectorial analysis of the ECG and its application to ventricular hypertrophy<br/>Vectorial analysis of the normal electrocardiogram<br/>Mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS—and its significance<br/>Coronary ischemia<br/>Further readings<br/>35. Cardiac cycle<br/>Diastole and systole<br/>Oxygen utilization by the heart<br/>Efficiency of cardiac contraction<br/>Further readings<br/>36. Cardiac output and venous return PY5.8, 5.9<br/>Normal values for cardiac output at rest and during activity<br/>Control of cardiac output by venous return—the Frank–Starling mechanism of the heart<br/>Venous return curves<br/>Analysis of cardiac output and right atrial pressure using simultaneous cardiac output and venous return curves<br/>Methods for measuring cardiac output<br/>Further readings<br/>37. Regulation of cardiac output PY5.8, 5.9<br/>Intrinsic regulation of heart pumping—the Frank–Starling mechanism<br/>Effect of potassium and calcium ions on heart function<br/>Effect of temperature on heart function<br/>Increasing the arterial pressure load (up to a limit) does not decrease the cardiac output<br/>Further readings<br/>38. Hemodynamics PY5.7<br/>Interrelationships of pressure, flow, and resistance<br/>Further readings<br/>39. Microcirculation PY5.10<br/>Structure of the microcirculation and capillary system<br/>Flow of blood in the capillaries—vasomotion<br/>Exchange of water, nutrients, and other substances between the blood and interstitial fluid<br/>Interstitium and interstitial fluid<br/>Fluid filtration across capillaries<br/>Further readings<br/>40. The lymphatic system PY5.10<br/>Formation of lymph<br/>Rate of lymph flow<br/>The lymphatic system plays a key role in controlling interstitial fluid protein concentration, volume, and pressure<br/>Further readings<br/>41. The venous system PY5.7<br/>Right atrial pressure (central venous pressure) and its regulation PY5.8<br/>Peripheral venous pressure and its determinants<br/>Blood reservoir function of the veins<br/>Further readings<br/>42. Determinants of arterial blood pressure<br/>Arterial pressure pulsations<br/>Vascular distensibility PY5.9<br/>Clinical methods for measuring systolic and diastolic pressures<br/>Further readings<br/>43. Short-term regulation of
arterial blood pressure PY5.8, 5.9<br/>Autonomic nervous system<br/>Role of the nervous system in rapid control of arterial pressure<br/>Special features of nervous control of arterial pressure<br/>Further readings<br/>44. Long-term regulation of
arterial blood pressure PY5.8, 5.9<br/>Quantification of pressure diuresis as a basis for arterial pressure control<br/>The renin–angiotensin system: Its role in arterial pressure control<br/>Further readings<br/>45. Local and humoral control of blood flow<br/>Variations in blood flow in different tissues and organs PY5.8. 5.10<br/>Mechanisms of blood flow control<br/>Humoral control of the circulation<br/>Further readings<br/>46. Coronary circulation<br/>Physiological anatomy of the
coronary blood supply PY5.10<br/>Normal coronary blood flow—averages 5% of cardiac output<br/>Control of coronary blood flow<br/>Special features of cardiac muscle metabolism<br/>Ischemic heart disease<br/>Causes of death after acute coronary occlusion<br/>Stages of recovery from acute myocardial infarction<br/>Function of the heart after recovery from myocardial infarction<br/>Pain in coronary heart disease<br/>Surgical treatment of coronary artery disease<br/>Further readings<br/>47. Cerebral circulation<br/>Anatomy of cerebral blood flow<br/>Regulation of cerebral
blood flow PY5.10<br/>Cerebral microcirculation<br/>“Cerebral stroke” occurs when cerebral blood vessels are blocked<br/>Further readings<br/>48. Splanchnic circulation<br/>Anatomy of the gastrointestinal blood supply PY5.10<br/>Effect of gut activity and metabolic factors on gastrointestinal blood flow<br/>Nervous control of gastrointestinal blood flow.<br/>Further readings<br/>49. Fetal and neonatal circulation<br/>Circulatory readjustments at birth PY5.10<br/>Special functional problems in the circulation of the neonate<br/>Abnormal circulatory dynamics in congenital heart defects<br/>Further readings<br/>50. Valvular heart disease<br/>Causes of heart sounds<br/>Valvular lesions<br/>Abnormal circulatory dynamics
in valvular heart disease PY5.11<br/>Hypertrophy of the heart in valvular heart disease<br/>Further readings<br/>51. Cardiac failure<br/>Circulatory dynamics in cardiac
failure PY5.11<br/>Unilateral left heart failure<br/>Low-output cardiac failure—cardiogenic shock<br/>Edema in patients with cardiac failure<br/>Cardiac reserve<br/>Further readings<br/>52. Circulatory shock<br/>Physiological causes of shock PY5.11<br/>Causes of shock<br/>Physiology of treatment in shock<br/>Circulatory arrest<br/>Further readings<br/>SECTION V. Respiratory Physiology<br/>53. Organization of the respiratory system<br/>Anatomical organization of the lungs and airways PY6.1<br/>Physical laws applicable in respiratory physiology<br/>Nonrespiratory functions of the lungs<br/>Further readings<br/>54. Mechanics of breathing<br/>Mechanics of pulmonary ventilation PY6.2<br/>Minute respiratory volume<br/>Alveolar ventilation<br/>Further readings<br/>55. Lung volumes and capacities<br/>Lung function tests PY6.7<br/>Pulmonary volumes and
capacities PY6.2<br/>Mucus lining the respiratory passageways, and cilia action to clear the passageways<br/>Flow–volume curves<br/>Further readings<br/>56. Ventilation<br/>Minute respiratory volume (minute ventilation)<br/>Alveolar ventilation PY6.2<br/>Maximum voluntary ventilation<br/>Breathing reserve<br/>Gas pressures in a mixture of gases—”partial pressures” of individual gases<br/>Pressures of gases dissolved in water and tissues<br/>Relationship between alveolar ventilation and partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide<br/>Causes of hypoventilation and hyperventilation<br/>Further readings<br/>57. Pulmonary circulation<br/>Physiological anatomy of the pulmonary circulatory system PY6.1<br/>Pressures in the pulmonary system<br/>Pulmonary vascular resistance<br/>Blood volume of the lungs<br/>Blood flow through the lungs and its distribution<br/>Effect of hydrostatic pressure gradients in the lungs on regional pulmonary blood flow<br/>Pulmonary capillary dynamics<br/>Further readings<br/>58. Diffusion of gases<br/>Physics of gas diffusion and gas partial pressures<br/>Diffusion of gases through the respiratory membrane PY6.2<br/>Diffusion and perfusion limitations of gas transfer<br/>Further readings<br/>59. Oxygen transport<br/>Compositions of alveolar air and atmospheric air are different<br/>Methods of oxygen transport PY6.3<br/>Hypoxia and oxygen therapy PY6.6, 6.5<br/>Further readings<br/>60. Carbon dioxide transport<br/>Transport of CO2 in the blood PY6.3<br/>Respiratory exchange ratio<br/>Further readings<br/>61. Chemical regulation of respiration<br/>Chemical control of respiration PY6.3<br/>Peripheral chemoreceptor system—role of oxygen in respiratory control<br/>Regulation of respiration during exercise<br/>Further readings<br/>62. Neural regulation of respiration<br/>Respiratory center PY6.3<br/>Other factors that affect
respiration PY6.6<br/>Further readings<br/>63. Respiration in unusual environments<br/>Effects of low oxygen pressure
on the body PY6.4<br/>Physiology of deep-sea diving and other hyperbaric conditions PY6.4<br/>Changes that occur with
deep-sea diving PY6.5<br/>Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) diving<br/>Further readings<br/>64. Applied respiratory physiology<br/>Respiratory disorders PY6.6<br/>Hypercapnia—excess carbon dioxide in the body fluids PY6.6<br/>Artificial respiration PY6.5<br/>Oxygen therapy<br/>Hyperbaric oxygen therapy<br/>Further readings<br/>SECTION VI. Gastrointestinal Physiology<br/>65. Organization of the gastrointestinal system PY4.1<br/>General principles of gastrointestinal motility<br/>Types of smooth muscle<br/>Contractile mechanism in smooth muscle<br/>Neural control of gastrointestinal function—enteric nervous system PY4.1<br/>Gastrointestinal blood flow—“splanchnic circulation”<br/>Gut-Brain-Axis PY4.6<br/>Further readings<br/>66. Salivary glands and secretion PY4.2<br/>General principles of alimentary tract secretion<br/>Secretion of saliva<br/>Further readings<br/>67. Gastric secretions PY4.2<br/>Esophageal secretion<br/>Gastric secretion<br/>Pathophysiology and treatment modalities for acid peptic disease<br/>Gastric function tests PY4.8<br/>Further readings<br/>68. Exocrine pancreas PY4.2<br/>Pancreatic secretion<br/>Further readings<br/>69. Functions of the liver PY4.7<br/>Physiological anatomy of the liver<br/>Hepatic vascular and lymph systems<br/>Metabolic functions of the liver<br/>Bile secretion by the liver PY4.2<br/>Measurement of bilirubin in the bile as a clinical diagnostic tool<br/>Liver function tests PY4.8<br/>Further readings<br/>70. Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates PY4.4<br/>General principles of digestion PY4.4<br/>Digestion of the various foods by hydrolysis<br/>Basic principles of gastrointestinal absorption<br/>Absorption in the small intestine<br/>Further readings<br/>71. Digestion and absorption of proteins PY4.4<br/>Hydrolysis of proteins<br/>Basic principles of gastrointestinal absorption<br/>Further readings<br/>72. Digestion and absorption of fats PY4.4<br/>Digestion of the various foods by hydrolysis<br/>Absorption in the small intestine<br/>Steatorrhea<br/>Further readings<br/>73. Functions of the small and large intestine PY4.2<br/>Secretions of the small intestine PY4.2<br/>Secretion of mucus by the large intestine PY4.2<br/>Absorption in the large intestine: Formation of feces PY4.3, 4.4<br/>Further readings<br/>74. Gastrointestinal motility PY4.3<br/>Functional movements in the gastrointestinal tract PY4.3<br/>Ingestion of food<br/>Motor functions of the stomach<br/>Migrating motor complex<br/>Movements of the small intestine<br/>Movements of the colon<br/>Other autonomic reflexes that affect bowel activity<br/>Further readings<br/>75. Physiology of gastrointestinal diseases PY4.9<br/>Disorders of swallowing and the esophagus<br/>Disorders of the stomach<br/>Disorders of the small intestine<br/>Disorders of the large intestine<br/>General disorders of the gastrointestinal tract<br/>Further readings<br/>SECTION VII. Renal Physiology<br/>76. Functional anatomy of the kidney<br/>Multiple functions of the kidneys PY7.1<br/>Physiological anatomy of the kidneys<br/>Further readings<br/>77. Urine formation by the kidneys: Renal blood flow, glomerular filtration, and their control<br/>General principles: Urine formation results from glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion PY7.1<br/>Renal blood flow<br/>Autoregulation of GFR and renal
blood flow<br/>Glomerular filtration—the first
step in urine formation PY7.2<br/>Use of clearance methods to measure glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and renal blood flow (RBF) PY7.4<br/>Determinants of the GFR<br/>Physiological control of glomerular filtration and renal blood flow PY7.5<br/>Further readings<br/>78. Tubular function<br/>Renal tubular reabsorption and secretion PY7.3<br/>Glomerulotubular balance<br/>Tubular reabsorption includes passive and active mechanisms<br/>Further readings<br/>79. Concentration and dilution of urine<br/>Antidiuretic hormone controls urine concentration PY7.3<br/>Kidneys conserve water by excreting concentrated urine<br/>Quantifying renal urine concentration and dilution: “free water” and osmolar clearances<br/>Disorders of urinary concentrating ability<br/>Further readings<br/>80. Control of extracellular fluid osmolarity and sodium concentration PY7.5<br/>Osmoreceptor–ADH feedback system<br/>Importance of thirst in controlling extracellular fluid osmolarity and sodium concentration<br/>Salt-appetite mechanism for controlling extracellular fluid sodium concentration and volume<br/>Further readings<br/>81. Renal regulation of potassium, calcium, phosphate, and magnesium<br/>Regulation of extracellular fluid potassium concentration and
potassium excretion PY7.5<br/>Control of renal calcium excretion and extracellular calcium ion concentration<br/>Control of renal magnesium excretion and extracellular magnesium ion concentration<br/>Further readings<br/>82. Acid–base regulation PY1.7, PY7.5<br/>H+ concentration is precisely regulated<br/>Acids and bases—their definitions and meanings<br/>Defending against changes in H+ concentration: Buffers, lungs, and kidneys<br/>Buffering of H+ in the body fluids<br/>Bicarbonate buffer system<br/>Phosphate buffer system<br/>Proteins are important intracellular buffers<br/>Respiratory regulation of acid–base balance<br/>Renal control of acid–base balance<br/>Secretion of H+ and reabsorption of HCO3− by the renal tubules<br/>Combination of excess H+ with phosphate and ammonia buffers in the tubule generates “new” HCO3−<br/>Regulation of renal tubular H+ secretion<br/>Renal correction of acidosis—increased excretion of H+ and addition of HCO3− to the extracellular fluid<br/>Renal correction of alkalosis—decreased tubular secretion of H+ and increased excretion of HCO3−<br/>Clinical causes of acid–base disorders<br/>Treatment of acidosis or alkalosis<br/>Clinical measurements and analysis of acid–base disorders<br/>Further readings<br/>83. Micturition<br/>Physiological anatomy of the bladder PY7.6<br/>Transport of urine from the kidney through the ureters and into the bladder<br/>Filling of the bladder and bladder wall tone; the cystometrogram PY7.9<br/>Micturition reflex<br/>Abnormalities of micturition<br/>Further readings<br/>84. Applied physiology of the renal system<br/>Renal function tests PY7.8<br/>Concentration and dilution tests of renal function<br/>Diuretics and their mechanisms of action<br/>Kidney diseases<br/>Acute kidney injury<br/>Chronic kidney disease is often associated with irreversible loss of functional nephrons<br/>Specific tubular disorders<br/>Treatment of renal failure by transplantation or by dialysis with an artificial kidney PY7.7<br/>Further readings<br/>SECTION VIII. The Endocrine System<br/>85. Organization of the endocrine system<br/>Definition of a hormone<br/>Coordination of body functions by chemical messengers PY1.3, py8.2<br/>Feedback control of hormone secretion<br/>Further readings<br/>86. Hormone–receptor interactions<br/>Chemical structure and
synthesis of hormones PY1.3, 8.6<br/>Hormone secretion, transport, and clearance from the blood<br/>Mechanisms of action of hormones<br/>Measurement of hormone concentrations in the blood<br/>Further readings<br/>87. Anterior pituitary gland and hypothalamus PY8.2<br/>Pituitary gland and its relation to the hypothalamus<br/>Hypothalamus controls pituitary secretion<br/>Physiological functions of growth hormone<br/>Further readings<br/>88. Posterior pituitary gland PY8.2<br/>Posterior pituitary hormones are synthesized by cell bodies in the hypothalamus<br/>Posterior pituitary gland and its relation to the hypothalamus<br/>Disorders of posterior pituitary hormone secretions<br/>Further readings<br/>89. Thyroid gland, thymus and pineal gland PY8.2, 8.3<br/>Synthesis and secretion of the thyroid metabolic hormones<br/>Metabolism and excretion of the thyroid hormones<br/>Physiological functions of the thyroid hormones<br/>Regulation of thyroid hormone secretion<br/>Diseases of the thyroid<br/>Endocrine functions of the thymus gland PY8.3<br/>Pineal gland PY8.3<br/>Further readings<br/>90. Calcium homeostasis PY8.1<br/>Physiological effects of calcium<br/>Outline of calcium metabolism PY8.1<br/>Mechanism of bone calcification<br/>Parathyroid hormone<br/>Vitamin D<br/>Calcitonin<br/>Summary of control of calcium ion concentration<br/>Pathophysiology of parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and bone disease<br/>Further readings<br/>91. Adrenal cortex PY8.2, 8.4<br/>Anatomy of the adrenal glands<br/>Corticosteroids: Mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens<br/>Synthesis and secretion of adrenocortical hormones<br/>Functions of the mineralocorticoids—aldosterone<br/>Functions of glucocorticoids<br/>Adrenal androgens<br/>Abnormalities of adrenocortical secretion<br/>Further readings<br/>92. Adrenal medulla PY8.2, 8.4<br/>Special nature of the sympathetic nerve endings in the adrenal medullae<br/>Biosynthesis of epinephrine and norepinephrine, its removal, and its duration of action<br/>Factors that control the secretion of catecholamines from the adrenal medulla<br/>Adrenergic receptors—alpha and beta receptors<br/>Physiological effects of catecholamines<br/>Further readings<br/>93. Endocrine pancreas and glucose homeostasis<br/>Insulin and its metabolic effects PY8.2<br/>Glucagon and its functions<br/>Somatostatin inhibits glucagon and insulin secretion<br/>Summary of blood glucose regulation<br/>Diabetes mellitus<br/>Further readings<br/>SECTION IX. Reproductive Physiology<br/>94. Physiological anatomy of the male sexual organs and spermatogenesis PY9.3<br/>Spermatogenesis PY9.9<br/>Further readings<br/>95. Testosterone and other male sex hormones<br/>Functions of testosterone PY9.7<br/>Basic intracellular mechanism of action of testosterone PY9.2<br/>Control of male sexual functions by hormones from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland<br/>Abnormalities of male sexual function PY9.1<br/>Further readings<br/>96. Female physiology before pregnancy and female hormones<br/>Physiological anatomy of the female sexual organs PY9.2<br/>Oogenesis and follicular development in the ovaries<br/>Female hormonal system PY9.5<br/>Female monthly sexual cycle (menstrual cycle) PY9.4<br/>Regulation of the female monthly rhythm—interplay between the ovarian and hypothalamic–pituitary hormones<br/>Functions of the ovarian hormones—estradiol and progesterone<br/>Puberty and menarche<br/>Menopause PY9.11<br/>Rhythm method of contraception<br/>Hormonal suppression of fertility—”the pill” PY9.6<br/>Further readings<br/>97. The Sexual Act and fertilization<br/>Psychic element of male sexual stimulation<br/>Integration of the male Sexual Act in the spinal cord<br/>Stages of the male Sexual Act<br/>Erectile dysfunction in the male<br/>Female Sexual Act<br/>Fertilization PY9.8<br/>What determines the sex of the fetus that is created?<br/>Clinical approach to the infertile couple PY9.12<br/>Cryptorchidism<br/>Further readings<br/>98. Physiology of pregnancy PY9.8<br/>Entry of the ovum into the fallopian tube (uterine tube)<br/>Fertilization of the ovum<br/>Transport of the fertilized ovum in the fallopian tube<br/>Implantation of the blastocyst in the uterus<br/>Early nutrition of the embryo<br/>Anatomy and function of the placenta<br/>Hormonal factors in pregnancy<br/>Response of the mother’s body to pregnancy<br/>Further readings<br/>99. Parturition and lactation PY9.8<br/>Parturition<br/>Lactation<br/>Further readings<br/>SECTION X. Central Nervous System<br/>100. Organization of the central nervous system PY10.1<br/>General design of the nervous system<br/>Major levels of central nervous system function<br/>Further readings<br/>PART I. Sensory System<br/>101. Synapses<br/>Types of synapses—chemical and electrical<br/>Physiological anatomy of the synapse PY10.2<br/>Chemical substances that function as synaptic transmitters<br/>Electrical events during neuronal inhibition<br/>Some special characteristics of synaptic transmission (box 101.1)<br/>Further readings<br/>102. Sensory receptors PY10.2<br/>Types of sensory receptors and the stimuli they detect<br/>Transduction of sensory stimuli into nerve impulses<br/>Nerve fibers that transmit different types of signals and their physiological classification<br/>Transmission of signals of different intensity in nerve tracts—spatial and temporal summation<br/>Further readings<br/>103. Somatic sensory pathways PY10.2, 10.3<br/>Classification of somatic senses<br/>Detection and transmission of tactile sensations<br/>Sensory pathways for transmitting somatic signals into the central nervous system PY10.6<br/>Transmission in the dorsal column–medial lemniscal system<br/>Transmission of less critical sensory signals in the anterolateral pathway<br/>Some special aspects of somatosensory function<br/>Further readings<br/>104. Pain and temperature<br/>Types of pain and their qualities—fast pain and slow pain<br/>Pain receptors and their stimulation PY10.2<br/>Dual pathways for transmission of pain signals into the central nervous system<br/>Pain suppression (“analgesia”) system in the brain and spinal cord<br/>Referred pain<br/>Visceral pain<br/>Some clinical abnormalities of pain and other somatic sensations PY10.3, 10.6<br/>Thermal sensations<br/>Further readings<br/>105. Somatosensory cortex<br/>Somatosensory areas I and II PY10.3<br/>Layers of the somatosensory cortex and their function<br/>Functions of somatosensory area I PY10.6<br/>Somatosensory association areas<br/>Overall characteristics of signal transmission and analysis in the dorsal column–medial lemniscal–cortical system<br/>Further readings<br/>PART II. Special Senses<br/>106. Taste and smell PY10.13, 10.14<br/>Sense of taste<br/>Sense of smell<br/>Further readings<br/>107. Hearing PY10.15, 10.16, 10.19<br/>Middle ear<br/>Cochlea<br/>Central auditory mechanisms<br/>Hearing abnormalities<br/>Tympanogram and tympanometry<br/>Auditory evoked potentials<br/>Further readings<br/>108. Optics of vision PY10.17<br/>Physical principles of optics<br/>Optics of the eye<br/>Fluid system of the eye—intraocular fluid<br/>Further readings<br/>109. The retina PY10.17<br/>Anatomy and function of the structural elements of the retina<br/>Photochemistry of vision<br/>Color vision<br/>Neural function of the retina<br/>Further readings<br/>110. Visual pathways and central processing PY10.18, 10.19<br/>Organization and function of the visual cortex<br/>Neuronal patterns of stimulation during analysis of the visual image<br/>Fields of vision; perimetry<br/>Eye movements and their control<br/>Autonomic control of accommodation and pupillary aperture<br/>Visual evoked potentials (VEP)<br/>Further readings<br/>PART III. Motor System<br/>111. Introduction to the motor system: Spinal cord PY10.4<br/>Organization of the spinal cord for motor functions<br/>Autonomic reflexes in the spinal cord<br/>Spinal cord transection and spinal shock<br/>Hemisection of the cord<br/>Tabes dorsalis<br/>Syringomyelia<br/>Further readings<br/>112. Cortical and brainstem control of motor function: The pyramidal tract PY10.4<br/>Motor cortex and corticospinal (pyramidal) tract<br/>Further readings<br/>113. Muscle spindle<br/>Muscle sensory receptors—muscle spindles and golgi tendon organs—and their roles in muscle control PY10.4<br/>Further readings<br/>114. Motor reflexes PY10.4<br/>Reflexes<br/>Flexor reflex and the withdrawal reflexes<br/>Crossed extensor reflex<br/>Reciprocal inhibition and reciprocal innervation<br/>Spinal cord reflexes that cause muscle spasm<br/>Further readings<br/>115. Regulation of tone and posture PY10.4<br/>Support of the body against gravity—roles of the reticular and vestibular nuclei<br/>Postural and locomotive reflexes of the cord<br/>Further readings<br/>116. Cerebellum<br/>Cerebellum and its motor functions PY10.4, PY10.7<br/>Further readings<br/>117. Vestibular apparatus<br/>Maintenance of equilibrium PY10.4<br/>Functions of the vestibular system<br/>Detection of head rotation by the semicircular ducts<br/>Vestibular mechanisms for stabilizing the eyes<br/>Tests for vestibular function<br/>Further readings<br/>118. Basal ganglia<br/>Neuronal circuitry of the basal ganglia<br/>Function of the basal ganglia in executing patterns of motor activity—the putamen circuit PY10.4, PY10.7<br/>Role of the basal ganglia for cognitive control of sequences of motor patterns—the caudate circuit<br/>Function of the basal ganglia to change the timing and to scale the intensity of movements<br/>Functions of specific neurotransmitter substances in the basal ganglial system<br/>Summary of integrated functions of the basal ganglia<br/>Clinical syndromes resulting from damage to the basal ganglia<br/>Further readings<br/>PART IV. Other Functions and Activities of the Brain<br/>119. The autonomic nervous system<br/>General organization of the autonomic nervous system PY10.5<br/>Basic characteristics of sympathetic and parasympathetic function<br/>Stimulation of discrete organs in some instances and “mass stimulation” in other instances by the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems<br/>Pharmacology of the autonomic nervous system<br/>Disorders of the autonomic nervous systems<br/>Further readings<br/>120. Functions of the hypothalamus PY10.7<br/>Vegetative and endocrine control functions of the hypothalamus<br/>Further readings<br/>121. Cerebrospinal fluid<br/>Cushioning function of the cerebrospinal fluid<br/>Formation, flow, and absorption of cerebrospinal fluid<br/>Cerebrospinal fluid pressure<br/>Obstruction to flow of cerebrospinal fluid can cause hydrocephalus<br/>Blood–cerebrospinal fluid and blood–brain barriers<br/>Brain edema<br/>Lumbar puncture<br/>Further readings<br/>122. Electroencephalography, epilepsy and meditation PY10.12, 11.12<br/>Electroencephalography<br/>Seizures and epilepsy<br/>Meditation<br/>Further readings<br/>123. Sleep, coma and brain death PY11.11<br/>Two types of sleep—slow-wave sleep and rapid eye movement sleep<br/>Basic theories of sleep<br/>Sleep has important physiological functions<br/>Disorders of sleep<br/>Coma and brain death<br/>Further readings<br/>124. The limbic system and behavior PY10.10<br/>Activating—driving systems of the brain<br/>Limbic system PY10.7<br/>Functional anatomy of the limbic system<br/>Specific functions of other parts of the limbic system<br/>Depression and manic–depressive psychoses—decreased activity of the norepinephrine and serotonin neurotransmitter systems<br/>Schizophrenia—possible exaggerated function of part of the dopamine system<br/>Further readings<br/>125. Learning and memory PY10.9<br/>Learning<br/>Thoughts, consciousness, and memory<br/>Alzheimer disease—amyloid plaques and depressed memory<br/>Further readings<br/>126. Cortical function, cerebral lateralization, and speech<br/>Physiological anatomy of the cerebral cortex<br/>Functions of specific cortical areas<br/>Function of the brain in communication—language input and language output PY10.9<br/>Function of the corpus callosum and anterior commissure to transfer thoughts, memories, training, and other information between the two cerebral hemispheres<br/>Further readings<br/>SECTION XI. Integrative Physiology<br/>127. Components of energy expenditure<br/>Components of 24-hour energy expenditure<br/>Metabolic rate and its measurement<br/>Further readings<br/>128. Body temperature regulation and cutaneous circulation<br/>Normal body temperatures<br/>Body temperature is controlled by balancing heat production and heat loss PY11.1<br/>Cutaneous circulation<br/>Sweating and its regulation by the autonomic nervous system<br/>Other mechanisms of heat loss in lower animals—panting<br/>Regulation of body temperature—role of the hypothalamus<br/>Behavioral control of body temperature PY11.2<br/>Abnormalities of body temperature regulation PY11.3<br/>Further readings<br/>129. Physiology of starvation and obesity PY11.5<br/>Starvation<br/>Obesity<br/>Further readings<br/>130. Physiology of physical activity and inactivity PY11.5<br/>Physical activity during the day occurs across multiple domains<br/>Physical activity increases energy expenditure<br/>Physical activity has health benefits<br/>Models of physical inactivity in humans<br/>Consequences of physical inactivity<br/>Sedentary behavior such as prolonged sitting can offset some of the gains of physical activity and exercise with regard to health<br/>Further readings<br/>131. Physiological responses to exercise in extreme heat and cold<br/>Cardiovascular changes during acute exercise PY11.8<br/>Respiratory changes during acute exercise<br/>Increase in muscle temperature (Tm) within physiological limits increases muscle performance<br/>Regulation of cardiovascular and respiratory function during acute exercise<br/>Exercise under conditions of heat stress<br/>Exercise under conditions of extreme cold<br/>Further readings<br/>132. Physiology of stress PY8.5<br/>A current understanding of the stress system<br/>Further readings<br/>133. Transition from fetus to newborn,
and infancy PY11.6<br/>Cardiovascular and circulatory changes<br/>The body fluids and the renal system<br/>Blood cells and immunity<br/>Respiratory system<br/>Central nervous system<br/>Gastrointestinal tract<br/>Thermal adaptation<br/>Physiology of growth: Hormones and related factors<br/>Further readings<br/>134. Physiological changes with aging PY11.7<br/>Definition of aging<br/>Chronological and biological aging<br/>Theories of aging<br/>System-wise changes that occur with aging<br/>Further readings<br/>Index<br/> |